A Survey on Quantum Computing: Challenges, Advances and Future Directions
Abstract
Quantum computing represents a transformative computational paradigm that exploits the principles of quantum mechanics superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference to achieve exponential speedups for specific classes of problems beyond the reach of classical systems. Unlike conventional CMOS-based architectures, quantum processors operate on quantum bits (qubits), implemented using diverse physical platforms such as superconducting circuits (e.g., IBM and Google processors), trapped ions (e.g., IonQ), photonic systems (e.g., PsiQuantum), and semiconductor spin qubits. Contemporary architectures include gate-based universal quantum computers, quantum annealers (e.g., D-Wave Systems), and hybrid quantum–classical accelerators integrated within high-performance computing frameworks. Despite significant progress, large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computing remains constrained by technological challenges, including qubit decoherence, limited gate fidelity, error accumulation, cryogenic integration requirements, scalability bottlenecks, and interconnect complexity. Quantum error correction (QEC) techniques, surface codes, cryo-CMOS control electronics, and 3D integration architectures are actively investigated to mitigate these limitations. Furthermore, physical layout constraints, qubit connectivity topology, and control-line routing introduce design complexities analogous to but fundamentally distinct from advanced VLSI interconnect and variability challenges. Emerging research directions focus on scalable quantum processor architectures, modular and distributed quantum systems, quantum networking, heterogeneous quantum–CMOS integration, and quantum-inspired hardware accelerators. Novel device paradigms, such as topological qubits, silicon-based quantum dots, and Quantum-dot Cellular Automata (QCA)-inspired nanoarchitectures, are also being explored to enable energy-efficient, fabrication-compatible quantum platforms. The convergence of quantum device physics, nanoelectronics, error-resilient architecture design, and advanced packaging technologies will ultimately determine the feasibility of practical, large-scale quantum computing systems.
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